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1 Defining philosophical terms on Tue Oct 13, 2009 10:31 pm

Syllogism

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllogism

A syllogism (Greek: συλλογισμός – "conclusion," "inference") or logical appeal is a kind of logical argument in which one proposition (the conclusion) is inferred from two others (the premises) of a certain form.
In Aristotle's Prior Analytics, he defines syllogism as "a discourse in which, certain things having been supposed, something different from the things' supposed results of necessity because these things are so." (24b18–20)
Despite this very general definition, he limits himself first to categorical syllogisms [1] (and later to modal syllogisms). The syllogism was at the core of traditional deductive reasoning, where facts are determined by combining existing statements, in contrast to inductive reasoning where facts are determined by repeated observations. Syllogism was superseded by first-order predicate logic following the work of Frege, in particular 1879 Begriffsschrift (Concept Script) 1879.

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2 Re: Defining philosophical terms on Wed Oct 14, 2009 1:35 am

Inductive inference

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductive_inference

Around 1960, Ray Solomonoff founded the theory of universal inductive inference, the theory of prediction based on observations; for example, predicting the next symbol based upon a given series of symbols. Solomonoff's theory attempts to be mathematically rigorous.
Fundamental ingredients of the theory are the concepts of algorithmic probability and Kolmogorov complexity. The universal prior probability of any prefix p of a computable sequence x is the sum of the probabilities of all programs (for a universal computer) that compute something starting with p. Given some p and any computable but unknown probability distribution from which x is sampled, the universal prior and Bayes' theorem can be used to predict the yet unseen parts of x in optimal fashion.
Another direction of inductive inference is based on E. Mark Gold's model of learning in the limit from 1967 and has developed since then more and more models of learning. The general scenario is the following: Given a class S of computable functions, is there a learner (that is, recursive functional) which outputs for any input of the form (f(0),f(1),...,f(n)) a hypothesis. A learner M learns a function f if almost all hypotheses are the same index e of f with respect to a previously agreed on acceptable numbering of all computable functions; M learns S if M learns every f in S. Basic results are that all recursively enumerable classes of functions are learnable while the class REC of all computable functions is not learnable. Many related models have been considered and also the learning of classes of recursively enumerable sets from positive data is a topic studied from Gold's pioneering paper in 1967 onwards. A far reaching extension of the Gold’s approach is developed by Burgin theory of inductive Turing machines, which are kinds of super-recursive algorithms.

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3 Re: Defining philosophical terms on Wed Oct 14, 2009 8:57 pm

Anthropomorphism

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropomorphism

Anthropomorphism is the attribution of human characteristics to non-human creatures and beings, phenomena, material states and objects or abstract concepts. Examples include animals and plants depicted as creatures with human motivation able to reason and converse and forces of nature such as winds, rain or the sun. The term derives from the combination of the Greek ἄνθρωπος (ánthrōpos), "human" and μορφή (morphē), "shape" or "form".
It is strongly associated with art and storytelling where it has ancient roots. Most cultures possess a long-standing fable tradition with anthropomorphised animals as characters that can stand as commonly recognised types of human behaviour.
Anthropomorphic animals are often used as mascots for sports teams or sporting events, often represented by humans in costumes.


http://www.carm.org/religious-movements/open-theism/anthropomorphism-god-relates-us-human-terms

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4 Re: Defining philosophical terms on Thu Oct 15, 2009 6:18 pm

Contingency

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contingency_(philosophy)

In common usage a contingency is a conditional response plan made in preparation for various future circumstances including the unanticipated.
Calling General Petraeus for advice if that happens is a contingency.
In philosophy and logic, contingency is the status of propositions that are not necessarily true or necessarily false. Here are four classes of propositions, some of which overlap:
necessarily true propositions, which must be true, no matter what the circumstances are or could be (examples: 2 + 0 = 2; All bachelors are unmarried).
necessarily false propositions, which must be false, no matter what the circumstances are or could be (examples: 2 + 2 = 5; Anne is both taller than and shorter than Brad).
contingent propositions, which are not necessarily true and not necessarily false (examples: There are only three planets; There are more than three planets).
possible propositions, which are true or could have been true given certain circumstances (examples: x + y = 4; There are only three planets; There are more than three planets). All necessarily true propositions, and all contingent propositions, are also possible propositions.
Usually, necessary proposition is understood to mean necessarily true proposition.

german

http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kontingenz_(Philosophie)



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5 Re: Defining philosophical terms on Thu Oct 15, 2009 6:22 pm

Epistemology

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemology

"Theory of knowledge" redirects here. For the International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme course, see Theory of knowledge (IB course).
Philosophy

Epistemology (from Greek ἐπιστήμη - episteme-, "knowledge, science" + λόγος, "logos") or theory of knowledge is the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope (limitations) of knowledge.[1] It addresses the questions:
What is knowledge?
How is knowledge acquired?
What do people know?
How do we know what we know?
Much of the debate in this field has focused on analyzing the nature of knowledge and how it relates to similar notions such as truth, belief, and justification. It also deals with the means of production of knowledge, as well as skepticism about different knowledge claims.
The term was introduced into English by the Scottish philosopher James Frederick Ferrier (1808–1864).[2]

http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erkenntnistheorie

Die Erkenntnistheorie oder Epistemologie ist eines der fachübergreifenden Diskussionsfelder der Philosophie, befasst mit der Frage, wie Wissen zustande kommt, welche Erkenntnisprozesse denkbar sind (etwa Sinneswahrnehmung, logische Schlussfolgerung, Modellannahme mit Versuch und Irrtum, Erkenntnis der Wahrheit durch Offenbarung, Reflexion angeborener Ideen und Kategorien), sowie mit den eingehenderen Fragen, wie begründet angebliches Wissen unter diesen Voraussetzungen ist, und woran man erkennt, dass es tatsächlich mit Erkenntnis angeboten wird. Von Interesse ist hier vor allem, welche Art von Zweifel an welcher Art von Wissen grundsätzlich bestehen kann. Können wir die Existenz materieller Gegenstände beweisen? Ist ein Satz wie „du sollst nicht töten“ auf ähnliche Weise „wahr“ wie eine Beobachtung aus der Astrophysik? Gibt es einen Beweis für die Existenz eines transzendenten Bereichs von Dingen, die sich der sinnlichen Wahrnehmung entziehen (wie das Leben nach dem Tod oder Gott)? Konkrete Wissensbestände werden hier (wie im Folgenden) oft nur als Beispiele benutzt, um an ihnen grundsätzliche Annahmen zu diskutieren.



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6 Re: Defining philosophical terms on Thu Oct 15, 2009 7:21 pm

Dichotomy

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dichotomy

A dichotomy is any splitting of a whole into exactly two non-overlapping parts.
In other words, it is a partition of a whole (or a set) into two parts (subsets) that are:
mutually exclusive: nothing can belong simultaneously to both parts, and
jointly exhaustive: everything must belong to one part or the other.
The two parts thus formed are complements. In logic, the partitions are opposites if there exists a proposition such that it holds over one and not the other.

Dichotomie (griechisch dichótomos „halbgeteilt, entzweigeschnitten“ aus dícha „entzwei, getrennt“ und témnein „schneiden“[1]; manchmal auch Dychotomie) bedeutet die Aufteilung in zwei Strukturen oder Mengen, die nicht miteinander vereinbar bzw. einander genau entgegengesetzt sind.
In der Mathematik, der Biologie (speziell der Botanik), der Philosophie, der Logik und der Sprachwissenschaft bezeichnet Dichotomie die Trennung einer Menge in zwei Untermengen, die sich gegenseitig ausschließen.



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7 Re: Defining philosophical terms on Sun Oct 18, 2009 2:27 pm

Ontology

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontology

Ontology (from the Greek ὄν, genitive ὄντος: of being (neuter participle of εἶναι: to be) and -λογία, -logia: science, study, theory) is the philosophical study of the nature of being, existence or reality in general, as well as of the basic categories of being and their relations. Traditionally listed as a part of the major branch of philosophy known as metaphysics, ontology deals with questions concerning what entities exist or can be said to exist, and how such entities can be grouped, related within a hierarchy, and subdivided according to similarities and differences.


http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontologie

Die Ontologie (aus dem Griechischen ὄν on als Partizip zu εἶναι einai „sein“ und aus λόγος logos - „Lehre“, „Wort“) ist eine Disziplin der theoretischen Philosophie. In der Ontologie geht es einerseits um Grundstrukturen der Realität. Dieser Gegenstandsbereich ist weitgehend derselbe, der nach traditioneller Terminologie „allgemeine Metaphysik“ genannt wurde.
Spezielle Gegenstandsbereiche betreffende Fragen sind zum Beispiel „Was ist der Mensch?“, „Gibt es einen Gott?“ oder „Hat die Welt einen Anfang?“. Diese Themen fielen nach traditioneller Stoffgliederung in den Bereich „spezielle Metaphysik“.
Bei einigen traditionellen Herangehensweisen steht der Begriff des Seins im Vordergrund. Allgemeiner fällt unter den Gegenstandsbereich der Ontologie eine Systematik grundlegender Typen von Entitäten (Gegenstände, Eigenschaften, Prozesse) und ihrer strukturellen Beziehungen.
Heute werden in der systematischen Philosophie die Ausdrücke „Ontologie“ und „Metaphysik“ zumeist gleichsinnig gebraucht.

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8 Re: Defining philosophical terms on Mon Oct 19, 2009 10:40 pm

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Etymology

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etymology

Etymology (pronounced /etɪˈmɒlədʒi/) is the study of the history of words and how their form and meaning have changed over time.
For languages with a long written history, etymologists make use of texts in these languages, and texts about the languages, to gather knowledge about how words were used at earlier stages, and when they entered the languages in question. Etymologists also apply the methods of comparative linguistics to reconstruct information about languages that are too old for any direct information to be available. By analyzing related languages with a technique known as the comparative method, linguists can make inferences about their shared parent language and its vocabulary. In this way, word roots have been found which can be traced all the way back to the origin of, for instance, the Indo-European language family.
Even though etymological research originally grew from the philological tradition, nowadays much etymological research is done on language families where little or no early documentation is available, such as Uralic and Austronesian.


Etymologie

http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etymologie

Die Etymologie (von altgr. ἔτυμος étymos „wahrhaftig“, „wirklich“, „echt“ und -logie) wird als Wissenschaftszweig der historischen Linguistik zugeordnet. Hier werden Herkunft und Geschichte der Wörter ergründet und damit, wie sich ihre Bedeutung und Form entwickelt haben.
Die Ergebnisse der Erforschung der Etymologien finden sich in gedrängter Form in etymologischen Wörterbüchern.

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9 Re: Defining philosophical terms on Thu Oct 22, 2009 10:47 am

Tautology (logic)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tautology_(logic)

In propositional logic, a tautology (from the Greek word ταυτολογία) is a propositional formula that is true under any possible valuation (also called a truth assignment or an interpretation) of its propositional variables. For example, the propositional formula ("A or not-A") is a tautology, because the statement is true for any valuation of A. Examples can be more complex such as ("A and B; or not-A; or not-B"). The philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein first applied the term to propositional logic in 1921.
A tautology's negation is a contradiction, a propositional formula that is false regardless of the truth values of its propositional variables. Such propositions are called unsatisfiable. Conversely, a contradiction's negation is a tautology. A formula that is neither a tautology nor a contradiction is said to be logically contingent. Such a formula can be made either true or false based on the values assigned to its propositional variables.
A key property of tautologies is that an effective method exists for testing whether a given formula is always satisfied (or, equivalently, whether its complement is unsatisfiable). One such method uses truth tables. The decision problem of determining whether a formula is satisfiable is the Boolean satisfiability problem, an important example of an NP-complete problem in computational complexity theory.
The notation is used to indicate that S is a tautology. The symbol is sometimes used to denote an arbitrary tautology, with the dual symbol (falsum) representing an arbitrary contradiction.

Tautologie (Logik)

http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tautologie_(Logik)

Eine Tautologie (altgr. τὸ αὐτό tò autó „dasselbe“ und -logie), auch Verum (lat. verum „wahr“) genannt, ist in der Logik eine allgemein gültige Aussage, das heißt eine Aussage, die aus logischen Gründen immer wahr ist. Beispiele für Tautologien sind Aussagen wie „Wenn es regnet, dann regnet es“ und „Alle Schweine sind Schweine“.
Teilweise wird der Begriff Tautologie für alle Arten von allgemein gültigen Aussagen verwendet, teilweise wird er auf solche Aussagen eingeschränkt, die in der zweiwertigen, klassischen Aussagenlogik allgemein gültig sind. Im letzteren, aussagenlogischen Sinn ist eine zusammengesetzte Aussage genau dann eine Tautologie, wenn sie wahr ist unabhängig davon, ob die Teilaussagen, aus denen sie zusammengesetzt ist, ihrerseits wahr oder falsch sind.
Formal wird die Feststellung, dass eine Aussage allgemein gültig beziehungsweise eine Tautologie ist, als geschrieben.

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10 Re: Defining philosophical terms on Sat May 08, 2010 3:21 am

evidentialism

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidentialism

Evidentialism is a theory of justification according to which whether a belief is justified depends solely on what a person's evidence is. Technically, though belief is typically the primary object of concern, evidentialism can be applied to doxastic attitudes generally. Formulating evidentialism in terms of the doxastic attitude of belief its most-defended form comes from Conee and Feldman: Belief, B, toward proposition, p, is epistemically justified for Subject,S, at time,t, if and only if B fits the evidence S has at t.

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11 Re: Defining philosophical terms on Sat May 08, 2010 3:23 am

presuppositionalism

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presuppositionalism

In Christian theology, presuppositionalism is a school of apologetics that aims to present a rational basis for the Christian faith and defend it against objections primarily by exposing the perceived flaws of other worldviews while the Bible, as divine revelation, is presupposed. It claims that apart from presuppositions, one could not make sense of any human experience, and there can be no set of neutral assumptions from which to reason with a non-Christian.[1] In other words, presuppositionalists claim that a Christian cannot consistently declare his belief in the necessary existence of the God of the Bible and simultaneously argue on the basis of a different set of assumptions that God may not exist and Biblical revelation may not be true. Presuppositionalism is the predominant apologetic of contemporary Calvinism and the Reformed churches.[2] Two schools of presuppositionalism exist, based on the different teachings of Cornelius Van Til and Gordon Haddon Clark. Presuppositionalism itself contrasts with classical apologetics and evidential apologetics.
Presuppositionalists compare their presupposition against other ultimate standards such as reason, empirical experience, and subjective feeling. They do not use the prefix pre- ("before") to imply priority in time (that is, something that must be supposed in advance), reason to understand it, and emotion to be affected by it; rather, a presupposition in this context is:
a belief that takes precedence over another and therefore serves as a criterion for another. An ultimate presupposition is a belief over which no other takes precedence. For a Christian, the content of Scripture must serve as his ultimate presupposition.... This doctrine is merely the outworking of the lordship of God in the area of human thought. It merely applies the doctrine of scriptural infallibility to the realm of knowing.[3]

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12 Re: Defining philosophical terms on Sat May 08, 2010 4:26 am

the difference between creationists and evolutionists is not the data, but their interpretation, because of their different presuppositions. Creationists dispute no observations by evolutionists, but often vigorously oppose the conclusions evolutionists draws from their observations. So here, a creationist would interpret the observation of enantioselective magnetichiral photochemistry as showing once again that the homochirality problem for chemical evolution is still unsolved. As shown, this caution is amply justified by the problems involved, some of which were commendably admitted by the authors. In their concluding comments, Rikken and Raupach admit (contrary to their optimistic abstract): ‘Clearly the question of the origin of the homochirality of life is far from answered.’

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13 Re: Defining philosophical terms on Sun May 09, 2010 12:24 am

proposition

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proposition

A proposition is a sentence expressing something true or false. In philosophy, particularly in logic, a proposition is identified ontologically as an idea, concept, or abstraction whose token instances are patterns of symbols, marks, sounds, or strings of words.[1] Propositions are considered to be syntactic entities and also truthbearers.
The existence of propositions in the abstract sense, as well as the existence of "meanings", is disputed by some philosophers. Where the concept of a "meaning" is admitted, its nature is controversial. In earlier texts writers have not always made it sufficiently clear whether they are using the term proposition in sense of the words or the "meaning" expressed by the words.[2] To avoid the controversies and ontological implications, the term sentence is often now used instead of proposition to refer to just those strings of symbols that are truthbearers, being either true or false under an interpretation. Strawson advocated the use of the term "statement", and this is the current usage in mathematical logic.




Eine Aussage im aristotelischen Sinn ist ein sprachliches Gebilde, von dem es sinnvoll ist zu fragen, ob es wahr oder falsch ist (so genanntes Aristotelisches Zweiwertigkeitsprinzip). Es ist nicht erforderlich, sagen zu können, ob das Gebilde wahr oder falsch ist; es genügt, dass die Frage nach Wahrheit („Zutreffen“) oder Falschheit („Nicht-Zutreffen“) sinnvoll gestellt werden kann, was zum Beispiel bei Fragesätzen, Ausrufen und Wünschen nicht der Fall ist. Aussagen sind somit Sätze, die Sachverhalte beschreiben und denen man einen Wahrheitswert zuordnen kann.



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14 Re: Defining philosophical terms on Mon May 10, 2010 2:31 am

Axiom

In traditional logic, an axiom or postulate is a proposition that is not proved or demonstrated but considered to be either self-evident, or subject to necessary decision. Therefore, its truth is taken for granted, and serves as a starting point for deducing and inferring other (theory dependent) truths.

Ein Axiom ist ein nicht deduktiv abgeleiteter Grundsatz einer Theorie (Wissenschaft, eines axiomatischen Systems).
Der Ausdruck „Axiom“ wird in drei Grundbedeutungen verwendet. Er bezeichnet
einen unmittelbar einleuchtenden Grundsatz, den klassischen (materialen) Axiombegriff; Beispiel: Satz vom Widerspruch
ein vielfach bestätigtes allgemeines Naturgesetz, der naturwissenschaftliche (physikalische) Axiombegriff; Beispiel: Newtonsche Axiome
einen zu Grunde gelegten, nicht abgeleiteten Ausgangssatz, den modernen (formalen) Axiombegriff.

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15 Re: Defining philosophical terms on Mon May 10, 2010 11:38 am

principle of parsimony

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parsimony

Parsimony is the use of the simplest or most frugal route of explanation available. The word derives from Middle English parcimony, from Latin parsimonia, from parsus, past participle of parcere: to spare. It is a general principle that has applications from science to philosophy and all related fields.

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